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But before I start doing so - there are few things to note to avoid possible misunderstandings.
1. Idea is to present subject in terms of political economy. However, I can only promise to try to do this comprehensibly, can't guarantee it will be as scientific or as pure and right on the spot as Joe can write things.
2. Since I'm Russian - you will most likely see my personal tendency to be somewhat protective on this particular subject. I'll try not to - but bear that in mind.
3. Since English is not my native language - I'll probably mess up some terms. I'll try to be consistent with common English terms of things and events I myself know only in Russian. But then again - translation may see certain degree of meanings lost.
4. History in general is a subject no less controversial than any other, so open-mindedness and consideration of speculative points go without saying.
5. Since understanding of this particular topic partially relies on understanding mentality, I'll try to convey certain cultural subtleties, relevant to the events. For that I’ll need not to forget about it though.
Russo-Japanese War
Start of 20th century
Russia on the dawn of 20th century: how can one describe her? How people lived there? What value she had in the world? Both communists and democrats tell us about weakness of the country at the time, about alleged inhumane conditions of life there, about ineptitude of the last emperor. But was all this the case? Why leaders of European countries did compete for attention of the Russian emperor? Why Russian casualties in World War I were fewer than German and Austrian-Hungarian? Why things were above and beyond the opposite way in World War II? What was Russia on the verge of 20th century?
At the moment of ascending to rule by emperor Nikolai II Russia had the biggest ground army in the world. Service period in the military was not 25 years, as mainstream opinion goes, but rather mere 4 years. Single sons, oldest brothers, teachers and doctors were excluded from military draft. Just 31% of draft eligible men ended up drafted (as opposed to 76% in France). All low military ranks got free education. Russian navy was 3rd most powerful in the world (after English and French).
Important role in governing the lands played local authorities - elected councils ('zemstvo'). They were elected by 3 groups of populace - peasants, private landlords and citizens. These councils were responsible for medicine, people's education, road maintenance, insurance, statistics and cooperation. Villages had peasant's self-government. State's budget at the time consisted of 1.2 billion roubles. Local budgets consisted of 200 million roubles.
Interjection:
Zemstva as state’s municipal organ were introduced by reform in 1864 signed by emperor Aleksandr II. This liberal change came as a result of idea that local people know the location better than officials sent from center. Main intent was to substitute bureaucratic direct control which followed orders from capital to the letter with local authorities, who would be more familiar with the region and therefore suited to perform required tasks more efficiently.
According to the reform there were 2 distinct types of zemstvo: sobranie (assembly – essentially local parliament) and uprava (administration – essentially government). Both of those were elected organs, professing the general idea of no-caste system. There were 3 classes for election base: landowners, urban citizens and village community delegates. To be able to elect as landowner one had to have at least 200 desyatin (1 desyatina – 1,0925 hectares) of land, or to be an owner of an industrial/trading enterprise or other immovable property no less than 15k roubles in value or producing no less than 6k roubles of profit per year. Additionally – representatives of landowners, communities or institutions that had at least 1/20 of this class’s election qualification were also included. For urban citizen class one had to have a trade license or to be an owner of an industrial/trading enterprise with no less than 6k roubles in terms of yearly amount of business, or have an immovable property value of no less than 500 roubles (for towns) and no less than 3k roubles (for cities). Peasant class elections were multi-phased: village communities elected delegates to local assemblies, assemblies elected electors, who in their own turn elected voice-people for sobranie.
Members of uprava were appointed by sobranie and consisted of 6 people. Sobranie made its convention once per year (except in case of emergency). Uprava functioned constantly. Sobranie made decrees and supervised pursuance. Uprava was an executive branch which actually performed what sobranie decided. Zemstva were forbidden to communicate with other zemstva from other region. Uprava didn’t have the power to force anything, because police was outside of their jurisdiction. They were also supervised by governor and minister of inner affairs, who had the power to suspend any of sobranie’s decree.
Reform was enacted everywhere at the same time. Many regions didn’t have them. In western region reform was enacted only in 1911. Which didn’t help much, considering how the whole idea was thrown away in 1917.
Overall reform helped to empower local initiative, agriculture and culture. They served well to create strong local infrastructure, especially road coverage. Almost every village had schools and hospitals (or at least field medic stations) due to their effort. Initially this idea came about from desire of Russian nobility. Eventually it became a noticeable part of political system, able to oppose state’s government.
Importance of nobility in the country significantly decreased. Out of 381 million desyatin(a) (1 desyatina = 1,0925 hectares) of land in European part of the country, nobility owned only 55 million (less that 15%). In other part of the country there was no lands owned by nobility whatsoever. Country that was considered to be a state of a whip and chains had quite humane laws. Russia was the only country where death penalty was forbidden for any crime, review by normal courts. Death penalty was left only in military tribunals and only for worst state-level crimes. Throughout 19th century there wasn't even a 100 people executed.
Country had 9 universities. High scholastic institutions had 30.000 students. At that moment Russia had 3.36 million children in schools. And with Nikolai II on the throne 10.000 schools opened throughout the country each year. There was about 850 periodic issues (meaning papers, journals and the like), 1315 print-shops and 4000 libraries.
"Russia is overabundant with women lyceums. Firm development of women's education in Russia has its advantages... You can feel that their minds went through different school than that of our fashionable monastery pupils... Russian girls are less restraint, but more natural than girls in our resort hotels"
- Professor Jules Legras, 1892
In the area of agriculture Russia got 2 billion puds (1 pud = 16,3804815 kilogramms) of harvest, exporting 20% of this amount, being the largest supplier of bread in Europe. Russia was also the major supplier of linen to the world market. Industrial GDP topped 2 billion roubles. New industrial regions - Donetsk, Krivoi Rog, Baku - saw a quick development. By the year of 1894 there were built 32500 verst (1 versta = 1 066,8 meters) of railroads, erected 150000 verst of telegraph lines, put on service 2000 river steamships.
Character of the emperor Nikolai II was quite incomprehensible for his contemporary peers. Question "Who is monarch?" was asked by both western leaders and different layers of Russian society. Important to note that image of emperor-martyr turned out to be surprisingly weird and, as a consequence, distorted, as the whole image of imperial Russia.
Nikolai II mounted Russian throne at the age of 26. He received best education. He was taught by the most prominent professors of the time - Pobedonostsev, Zamyslovskiy, Leyer, Dragomirov. While being an heir he served in life guards in Preobrazhenskiy regiment and in life guards in cavalry artillery. He worked in government, presiding in state council and in cabinet of ministers. In 1891 he lead the committee to deal with hunger of 1891-1892. He also was the chairman of the Trans-Siberian railway construction oversight committee. Nikolai II was exceptionally proficient with foreign languages.
Those, who barely knew him, thought him to be a weak and soft person, confusing his intelligence (refinement?) with his inner qualities. Those, who actually knew him, had quite the different opinion. German procurator count vonReks in his report said following:
"His manners are so modest and he show so little of outer resolve that it's easy to conclude the lack of strong will. But people surrounding him, assure me, that he has very precise will which he knows how to realize in the most calm fashion"
This same trait is noted by the majority of those who knew the emperor. He was relentless in not forgetting about issues, always finishing up on things he set out to do. Historian Oldenburg notes:
"Over iron hand emperor wears a velvet glove. His will is not like thunderous roar. It doesn't manifest itself by explosions or confrontations. It rather reminds you of inevitable flow of a river from mountain height towards the ocean. It goes around obstacles, sways from side to side, but eventually, inevitably, closes on it's goal."
And the first confirmation of his iron will is his own love story. Throughout his entire he carried the love towards one woman, which became the mother of his five children. He first met her in his youth. She was Alisa of Genssen, German princess, younger sister of Elizaveta, wife of his uncle Sergey. After that first meeting Nikolai II carried the memory of her for ten years. And even though his parents suited him with French princess, Nikolai II was able to have his way and ended up making an engagement with his beloved in the spring 1894.
Soon after his coronation in May 1896 many will feel his firm will and resolve. In his prayer at the coronation metropolitan (archbishop) of Saint-Petersburg - Palladiy- said:
"Show him to be victorious - for enemies, fearsome - for villains, benign and trustworthy - for good people. Warm his heart to care for poor, to accept strange and to protect offended."
International status of Russia was so important that, for example, in France Russian emperor's coronation day was proclaimed to be a celebration day. Emperor shown himself to be a great negotiator. after coronation he made his first foreign trip. Main reason was to visit France. But, before that he also visited Austria and Germany. The whole trip was arranged on a diplomatically conciliational note. First meeting with Wilhelm II after becoming an emperor was a friendly one, but there were obvious complications: Germany is afraid about trip to Paris, but you can't placate them too much to not offend French. So Nikolai let Wilhelm do most of the talking, while playing the usual "traditional friendship" routine himself.
Visit to France was a big celebration. 2 million of regular citizens saw 930.000 newcomers. Paris was overcrowded. Everything became Russian or pseudo-Russian: soap "Le Tsar", sweets with Russian Crest or flag, dishes with emperor's face, toys, portraying Russian bear or the emperor or empress or even princess Olga. Same went for flow of welcoming letters and postcard into Russian embassy. Even as serious issue as "Journal de Debat" proposed to give name Olga to girls born in October 1896, in the honor of emperor's daughter. List can go on. One thing is for certain: Paris populace was in true joy.
International role of Russia after this trip increased immensely, which allowed to approach the question of mid-sea channels. Russian ambassador in Constantinople - Nelidov, as well as director of General Staff - Obruchev - and deputy minister of foreign affairs - Shishkin - proposed to emperor in 23rd of November to take fleet towards Bosphorus and occupy northern parts of it. Eternal enemy - England - had no problem with splitting Turkey, but Russian minister of Finances - Vitte - voiced his disagreement. and unexpectedly enough - France was also in disagreement. France feared that England would conquer Dardanelles. In the end of the day - operation was postponed.
At the same time in Russia new forces, hostile towards the state are being organized. Lenin, Nakhamkes, Cederbaum and Krupskaya create a union for freedom of working class. Lenin's comrades starting to organize industrial stoppages. 23rd of May 1896 stared ted first stoppages in textile industry.
Connection between Russia's international activity and revolutionaries' (who had a close contact with western financial groups) activities is obvious.
In terms of inner economy emperor went with state alcohol monopoly. This decision (admittedly - as much as any other government measure) – was highly criticized by a wide variety of societal levels. It’s been said that government forces alcohol upon the populace. Actually, monopoly didn’t have any direct impact on drink rates. Excise system that existed before monopoly as well as system before that both created a class of people with special interest in increase of alcohol sales. State monopoly on vodka didn’t try to prohibit it consumption (sadly), but also didn’t inspire increase consumption by advertisement, trust sales and such. At the same time – and that was the entire reason behind this decision – monopoly increased state revenue by taking the role of broker. This indirect tax which existed in all countries in some shape or form – went right into state treasury.
28 of January 1897, full population census was conducted. Turned out that approximations were undercompensating: “officially” there was about 120 million, actually – 126.4 million (not counting 2.5 million inhabitants of the Great Finland Principality).
Minister of Finances – Vitte – started introducing questionable money reform. Basically it came down to this: new gold rouble that is to be the new currency was to be equaled to 1.5 “old” gold roubles. In other words it was equaled to credit rouble, rate of which for more than a year was being kept at 7.5 roubles for “half-imperial” (old 5-rouble coin). Gosbank had a gold stash worth about 1.200 million roubles, but credit notes in circulation were for about 1.100 million roubles. That way reinstatement of free exchange wasn’t a problem. Money reform ended up in gold partially coming out of the country, although with miniscule economic losses, because government lead active protection policy for inner market against import of foreign goods.
At the time – in warmongering Europe – Russia was the only one preaching for world’s peace. In 1898 emperor suggested limiting weaponization. He was historically the first ever leader to raise the question of practical measures of preventing wars easement of weaponization.
Minister of foreign affairs Muraviyov invited foreign ambassadors and read them a document, approved by the emperor:
“Protection of world’s peace and possible reduction of arms, weighing upon every nation, are - with current state of affairs – a goal towards which efforts of all governments should be directed… To put a limit on constant weaponizations and find ways to prevent disasters that threaten the whole world – that is the highest duty for every state…”
Note was published in “State Herald” and spread throughout the world at this very day. Response was very swift – and negative.
Though eventually Russia managed to hold a peace conference in Hague. Conference was seated in 1899 with Russian ambassador in London, Baron Staal, as chairman. Fight concentrated around two motions – limiting of arms and mandatory arbitration.
Baron Staal:
Limit of military budgets and weaponry – is the main goal of the conference. We don’t talk about utopias, we suggest disarming. We want limits, stop of weapons increase.
Certain prohibitive declarations were passed: 1) against explosive rounds, 2) against throwing explosive projectiles from air-balloons (essentially against bombing), 3) against usage of projectiles that spread choke-damp. Ratified agreements about applying Geneva Convention in naval warfare (including the question about hospital-ships), about revising declaration about laws and traditions of warfare and about peaceful resolution of international disputes by the way of intermediation and arbitrage. This convention, designed by Russian delegate professor F.F. Martens, resulted in creation of the International Court of Justice in Hague, which exists to date.
At this time emperor Nikolai II makes a decision that in future will prove to be defining for the country. Decision, which is misunderstood at the time and underestimated still. Considering the fact that in Europe Russia has significant problems such as trade dependence on good will of Turkey officials in times of peace, and impossibility of Baltic fleet to get the breathing room in times of war, emperor decides to develop so-called “Asian plan” .
Emperor wrote this on foreign affairs minister’s report (2 of April 1895):
“Russia undoubtedly requires free and open port throughout the whole year. That port be situated on the main land (south-east of Korea) and necessarily connected with our former domain by land”.
Situation at the moment didn’t allow to immediately reach that goal: Russian forces in Far East weren’t strong enough, had to work conjointly with other countries.
“Now there’s a good opportunity to quick finish up with China, split in among the main interested parties”, wrote the liberal “Novosti”. But Russian policy was more complicated than that.
Russia didn’t wish splitting China, as opposed to France and Germany. Russia strived to keep China’s integrity as the means to assert her own primary influence there. For that reason since 1895 (since Shimonoseki treaty), Russia takes course on friendship with China.
At the time of coronation festivities Chinese delegation headed by Li Hung Chan (don’t know how to properly write him in English, have to look up and edit later) was graced by special attention. Russia and China signed a treaty, according to which Russia promised her support and China allowed making of Great Siberian path through Manchuria, homeland of Chinese emperor (not very populated at the time).
Another positive development in Russian-Chinese relations were the events of Spring 1895. Japan occupied Laodong (these Chinese names, need to verify spelling) with Port Arthur and southern Manchuria. Russia initiated ultimatum to France and Germany 23 of April in Tokyo. This ultimatum forced Japan to return Laodong to China. As the token of gratitude China allowed Russia to use port of Qingdao.
Even warmer relations were established with Korea. Koreans thought of Russian as their protectors and mentors. Their king, expecting a war with Japan, was ready to submit to any demands. In his conversation with German prince Heinrich emperor sated:
“I don’t want to take Korea, but there’s no way I can allow Japanese to have a foothold there.”
Trans-Siberian railway was coming along nicely. According to emperor’s initiative started populace resettling into the Siberia and Far East. Settlers were motivated by state’s help such as funds, building materials and reduced taxation. In 5-6 years Siberian population considerably increased. Peasants resettled over 1.2 million.
Growing Russian influence in Far East caused concerns not only for Japan, but also for western countries. When emperor Wilhelm II visited Petergof in Summer 1897 he raise a question about allowing Germany’s ships and coal station to make port in China. He asked Nikolai II to allow them to use Qingdao, where Russian ship could stay for winter by agreement with Chinese government. Emperor responded:
“Russia is interested in keeping access to that port until we get more northern port”.
Then German emperor asked permission for his ships to use that port in case of emergency, but Nikolai II refused. It is surprising that even after such firm denial anyone would call him soft. It takes a special kind of dislike towards the person to do this.
In autumn that year seemingly coincidentally 2 German missionaries were killed in Shandong province near Qingdao. Germany used this event as reason press against China. Emperor Wilhelm II demanded dispatching warships in Qingdao, but chancellor advised to run this by Russia. Wilhelm II telegraphed directly to Nikolai II, asking a permission to send ships to Qingdao to resolve the situation “since that is the only point from which it is possible to get those marauders”. Yet Nikolai II refused again. Despite this fact, German ships entered the bay of Qingdao and set foot in the city. This signified the first major pique between Nikolai II and Wilhelm II. It almost resulted in a war.
In December 1897, after signing a rent treaty with China, Russia deployed troops in Port Arthur. At this point England made a proposition to split Turkey and China, but the emperor answered this:
“You can’t split existing sovereign state on ballparks”. (that term seems odd, need to confirm translation)
Then England rented from Japan occupied Chinese port Wei-Ha-Wei (another Chinese name to look up and edit later). Japan was enraged by the fact Russia took Port Arthur, russophobia in the country increased significantly. All the while Chinese continued to view Russia - as an ally, but England, Japan and Germany – as occupants. Control areas in China also differed. In places under Russian control Chinese could live, trade and move freely, while ports under the control of Germany, England and Japan were close to them, many of them had “no Chinese” signs and even “no dogs, no Chinese”.
It was obvious that war in Far East is just a matter of time.
Nikolai II:
“Confrontation is inevitable, but I hope It won’t happen for at least 3 years”.
German intervention as well as inappropriate English and Japanese attitude caused continuous dissatisfaction. In the Spring 1900 anti-foreign moods in China started to rise, but foreign countries, used to Chinese passiveness, paid little attention. Vague rumors about a union of Big Fist, organizing the agitation against “overseas devils”, resulted in an ironic name “Boxers” for the movement.
Rebellion came ubiquitously and with great force. Beijing was cut off from the sea, embassy quarter – besieged by Chinese. Even when ambassadors made demands to “punish the guilty”, even when they still tried to deal with Chinese government, it was already obvious from the outside, that government in this case support the rebels. China, after long years of foreign control stopped being a “dead body” or “tied animal”: it rebelled against foreigners; and Chinese government, while not convinced in expediency of the rebellion, succumbed to people’s movement.
Rebellion was foiled by the joint force under German command. Beijing was taken by Russian force under the command of general Linevich, who managed to save Russian embassy.
Immediately after Russia made a circular note suggesting immediate to get troops out of Beijing, but Germany refused and so European marauders robbed palaces of the Forbidden City. Russia took a stand against death penalty for rebels, as opposed to Germany, England and Japan.
That is when Russia started to build fleet as united military system, consisting of serial ships. To overcome technical disadvantages Russia ordered head ships in the best wharfs of France, Germany and USA. After comparison testing next ships were made in Russian wharfs. So from France Russia got ironclad “Tsesarevich”, which stated a series of 8 ships. Germany made cruiser “Bogatyr’” and light cruiser “Novik”, whose destined to become a favorite ship of famed admiral Makarov.
Growth of Russia, her firm policy in Far East region, active warship production, construction of Trans-Siberian railway, sudden increase in oil drilling in Baku – all these factors set in motion a global counter mechanism.
“Also there were agreements about financing Japanese government in their war against Russian government in their attempt to weaken monarchy and by that ease the Bolshevik’s task. In new York: Jacob Schiff, J.P. Morgan, First National Bank, National City Bank provided Japan with 30.000.000$ to attack Russian government from the East”.
- A. Ralph Epperson, “The Unseen Hand”.
(retranslation, might be incorrect in wording, don’t have the original text at hand)
It seems that money were given no only to arm Japan, but also to finance anti-state organizations in Russia. Since Soviet times people got used to thinking that 1903 – is the year when Bolshevism was born, because of the 2nd convention of Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ party. In the so-called “Stalin course” you can read that convention seated 43 delegates, and no effort is made to hide the fact that convetion started in Brussels and then moved to London. This means that Russian social democracy was of course sponsored. And sponsors of it came not just from Russia, but rather from the outside.
Same day, 17th of July, in Sarov, occured event of completely different nature. Russia took time honor it’s saint, to canonize Seraphim of Sarov. Emperor’s family, court and nobility visited Sarov. More than 100.000 people attended the event. Emperor himself participated in carrying the coffin with remains on his shoulders. That was a celebration of rare not-politicized religious nature.
France was unhappy about incoming war. It expected Russia to be an ally against Germany. And even though French press (except the very left), carried out friendly attitude, Delcasse’s government made quick arrangements with England. In Germany left press was against Russia, right – in majority for Russia. Significant role played personal attitude of German emperor towards the conflict. Wilhelm II wrote:
“If England and Japan are going to act together – they can crush Russia, but they have to move quickly, otherwise Russians will became too strong”.
China hastily proclaimed neutrality: they hoped to protect themselves from repressions from the winner. England and USA definitively joined Japan’s side.
Japan was vigorously preparing for war; England built them a strong fleet and they were ready to purchase some south American ships for private loan by Jacob Schiff. Dangerous moment was closing: Trans-Siberian railway was not yet completed (full-capacity usage started in August 1903, but without way around lake Baikal, so using ferries slowed down the transportation), and there was yet just one modern ironclad (“Tsesarevich”).
Emperor thought that in 1905-1906 Russia will be sufficiently strong in Far East to no longer be afraid of Japan. But there was still 1903. Coming 1.5-2 years were the years of greatest risk. Japan understood this, so did England, so did Jacob Schiff, and so did German Kaiser. 24th of January 1904 Japan declared a rift in diplomatic relations with Russia.
As we can see, Emperor Nikolai II was quite peculiar individual. He was also strong-willed, because only a strong-willed person in his position could go against the will of his father – Emperor Aleksandr III – and on such a matter as love. Only a strong-willed person could move the center of state’s politics from West to East and force government official to abide by such will. Only a strong-willed person in his position could be a subject to continuous flattery to curry favor from by France, Korea and Germany. We can state that emperor’s strong character, active foreign policy and complex Asian plan scared both West and East much more, than foreign policy of Aleksandr III. Unfortunately, inner enemies became a good crutch for outer enemies. We see that England, bankers from Wall Street , Japan, Germany and even France acted together against Russia. If Russia was weak and unimportant, if Russian emperor was weak-willed, then obviously nothing like that would ever happen.
On the verge of war
“Unobservant and even neglectful attitude towards the past that is considered obsolete stops people from learning even those constant strategic lessons which lie on the surface”.
A. T. Mahan.
Only those people who respect their past can look forward to their future with optimism. Throughout 20th century communists and then liberals and democrats taught Russian people exactly the opposite. So comes the time to liberate ourselves from myths which are overabundant in the field of history.
More than a hundred years have passed since Japanese cannonade over Port Arthur went silent. One hundred years have passed for Tsushima waters, who still keep in their depths steel coffins of proud ironclads, whose dead armaments protect the eternal peace of heroic crew. For the sake of the future Russian people must give credit to their not so ancient ancestors. It is time to clear out those dense russophobic historical myths, both western and eastern in origin. Furthermore even today Russia and Japan have serious reasons for confrontation.
Western ill-wishers and after them – Russian own russophobes like to call Russian people lazy and non-practical. Yet history of settling in the Far East shows Russian being at least four times more efficient at it than Anglo-Saxons And at least 18 time more efficient than diligent Japanese, who took around 12 centuries to reach Kuril Islands.
In 1766, twenty years before first Japanese appearance on Southern Kurils, Russian empress Ekaterina the Great signed so-called “Kuril edict”, which said:
“Her Imperial Highness commands to leave hairy locals nationalized on the far islands free, to not demand any tax from them neither today, nor in the future, but to try and be friendly and gentle for the expected benefits of trade and enterprise and continue newfound acquaintanceship”.
At the end of an 18th century Japanese, after acquiring a major foothold on Hokkaido, used the absence of Russian navy in the Pacific to raid Russian settlements. First confrontations of regular military forces date back to 1806 and 1807 in Aniva Bay. From the Russian side among other ships involved there was frigate “Juno” and sloop “Avos”, the famous “Juno & Avos”, glorified in the well-known rock-opera (musical) by Aleksey Rybnikov.
Successful reclamation of the Far East and Pacific Ocean by Russian sailors and industries met certain misunderstandings in Russia’s own capital. Aleksandr I in 1812 decides not to have Hawaii. Aleksandr II cheaply lets go of Alaska and Aleut Islands. But the worst of it all was the opposition to the Far East plan of Nikolai II.
Impending war with Japan was mythologized by Russian society far before it actually started. At the end of the 19th century there was already put a significant effort to overblow myth about “emperor’s aggressive policy in the far East”. All the while Russia even though needing of a bigger amount of business with China didn’t participate in international colonial expeditions of European countries against China. For one, Russia didn’t take part in the so-called “opium wars” instituted by civilized England against uncivilized China. The best of London – respectable English tea merchants, founders of the world renowned tea-trade companies, many of which are in this same position today, were also founders of the biggest narcotic cartel in human history. British Crown dealt drugs on the highest state’s level.
But the country, which her own ‘educated’ part of the society – from under graded student to a well-knowledgeable professor – following the modest Europe happily called ‘the prison of nations’, employed entirely different policy. Border guard corps and Cossack forces on the Far East borders were given orders to strictly suppress not just opium contraband, employed not only by local Khunkhuz gangs, but also by some Chinese merchants, who were illegally crossing the border in hope of bartering worthless drugs for expensive furs and ginseng from trusting locals – Gol’ds and Udege, but also suppress anyone doing the same with vodka. Knowing about physiological incapability of little peoples to fight (such drug as) alcohol emperor proclaimed full alcohol prohibition for them even at (supposed) the detriment of free trade. It would take Soviet regime to start an alcoholic river around these parts through human-loving communistic trading posts.
At the start of 20th century slow-going Russo-Japanese territorial conflict, conditioned by Japanese claims of Russian Kuril Islands and Sakhalin, moved towards Manchuria – in the lands of modern China. Russian people of the late 20th – early 21st century have a hard time understanding why Russia was in need of Port Arthur and railway on Chinese territory, because modern (and not a small one at that) cargo flow successfully serviced by ports of Vladivostok and Nahodka, and there is military naval base in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy. This misunderstanding happens because when we study history of humankind we sometimes fail to tie it to geophysical conditions such as climate change.
Nowadays marginally educated journalists love to scream about ‘global warming’. While serious scientists claim that we live in the happy times between ice ages. Not too long ago climate was different because Europe was iced. In Europe of the 19th century was colder than today’s Moscow or Saint-Petersburg. Remember that nice children’s book – “Silver Skates”? While in Netherlands of 21st century you won’t be able to skate on frozen canals. Today on sandy beaches of Belgian Oostende sub-tropical palm trees grow no worse than in Abkhazia. It wasn’t much warmer in the Far East on the verge of 20th century. Vladivostok’s bay – Zolotoy Rog – was frozen for up to 5 months per year meaning that for 5 months per year newly constructed Trans-Siberian railway would stop being transit passage from Europe into Asia. Even worse than that – almost for half a year Russian coast would be defenseless against any potential adversary, who has ports in warmer waters.
Even so, Russia didn’t employ annexation policy in the Far East. Yes, Russian forces took part in stopping the “boxer rebellion”. Russian ships, particularly the gunboat “Koreyets”, which was eventually tragically lost along with legendary cruiser “Varyag”, took part in bombardment of forts protecting sea approach to Beijing, but that was a part of effort to save Russian diplomatic mission in the city. And in general Russia supported Chinese government against the rebels.
Chinese pie was being split among the whole Europe. Lease treaty were officially approved. For instance, Germany made a lease treaty with China about lending previously captured Qingdao for 99 years period. Remembering lending of the Alaska in exactly the same way we can see that this is just poorly masked form of annexation. Demands to follow up on the terms of such treaty in the future can only be made by the powerful side. Soviet Union in 1967 didn’t have strong enough military for that. But reborn by Dan Xiaoping China not only demanded Hong Kong back from the United Kingdom (same 99-year lease deal), but actually got it back with all infrastructure built by non-Chinese. British Empire was unlikely to comply with such a demand because law of strong being right applies in politics to date. To think of it – who can force the greatest, most democratic empire of all times to return to Panama their same-named canal? By the way it wasn’t built by Americans, or for American money.
For some reason Russian government didn’t employ said policy. Minister could suggest something like that. He could suggest a cheap rough annexation of foreign lands. But that wouldn’t resonate with emperor’s heart. Following the West, Russian democratic publicists love to brand Russia as absolute unrestrained monarchy. However, unlike democratic, constitutionally restrained empires of Britain and Germany, Russian monarchy was restrained by national mentality. This restraint constituted in the sincere profession of traditional values of honesty, modesty and conscience by the emperor.
Unlike Europeans Russia got Port Arthur, Quantung (another Chinese name to confirm spelling) and the line for railway construction for only 25 years. Unlike ports seized by Europeans, Port Arthur and Dal’niy were being built not just for trade with China (railway would suffice for that), but for whole year open gates, providing Russia the path into the world’s markets in general.
Even military part of Russian Far East project differed from European approach, because it was not directed against quickly losing sovereignty China, but for protection of Russian coastline. Even more so, in 1896 Russia and China made a defense pact against Japan. First article of that agreement stated:
“Any kind of attack by Japan on either Russian territory in Eastern Asia, or on the territory of China or Korea will be seen as immediate application of this treaty.”
Bear in mind, that this kind of pact was made in the time, when it was expected to look down on China and force it by any other country.
In Soviet times common way to describe these events was to say that “In the Far East there was a confrontation of two imperialistic predators – Russia and China”. We’ll talk about Japan’s samurai spirit-soaked aggression a bit later. But for now we are interested in myth about Russian aggression. Let’s analyze it.
Aggressor always prepares for war consciously. For employment of aggressive foreign policy there has to be an aggressive mood within the society. But Russian people en masse, both religious and not, had a hard time understanding for what reason blood was being shed on the hills of Manchuria.
Japan, however, was different. Let’s forget about samurais and look upon common folk. This is what German doctor Erwin Balz serving in imperial palace Meydzi (need to confirm spelling) wrote in his diary at 25th of September 1903 (half a year before war):
“… I meat a fashionable Japanese on the train. He said to me: “People’s frustration with Russia is out of control. Government should declare war immediately. Otherwise I’m afraid riots will occur. Even throne is in danger.”
4 days before the war Belgian ambassador Albert D’Anethan wrote in his 22 of January 1904 report:
“For a long period of uncertainty and impatience, when Japanese patriotism have woken up and become overexcited to such a degree, which probably can’t be measured from outside, shich can only be understood by such a foreigner, who studied history and character of this primordially warlike nation, government in their attempts to keep the peace confronts unanimous will – war.”
In 1901 Japanese professors and high military officials created influential organization known as “Amur river society”. In 1903 they also created another powerful social union called “Anti-Russian camaraderie”.
It has to be said that Japanese hatred towards Russians had in its base something bigger than just strangled ambitions. Both Soviet and European historical science state that Russo-Japanese contradictions started when Russia along with France and Germany forced Japan to seize its aggression against China. But how would you explain assassination attempt on the heir of Russian Empire 4 year prior?
29th of April 1891, while travelling around Japan, Nikolai Romanov became a subject to a bold assassination attempt. On the main street of ancient city of Kyoto, as it was written in papers at the time, Japanese city guard Suda Tsandzo, who stood in the police block, clearing the way for the important guest, hit him on the head with a sword. He was saved from certain death by squash hat he wore and agility of a cousin – Greek prince Georg, who hit the attacked with a bamboo stick.
What if not songs express the soul of the people. Sometimes verses are anonymous. Sometimes even distinctly folk songs have a very well-known author. But is there anyone who can point me a Russian song, calling to war? Who can name a Russian poet, preaching to sharpen bayonets or to clang weapons in any way? But young Japanese poet Ishikawa Takuboku wrote songs for the people, in which he said, that it is time to wage war against Russia under the command of gods. And then he calls Russian military “Devil’s army”, that stand in the way of eternal progress of the entire world.
At the same time Ishikawa Takuboku had very respectable attitude towards enemy’s army:
“… he considered Russian to be much more democratic than Mikado regime in Japan. As an examples he used histories of Korolenko, Dostoyevsky, Gorky , who at times were imprisoned, but still were published and had serious influence in Russian society. Ishikawa himself wasn’t pursued for respect for the enemy. He was genuinely interested in Russia, Russian literature, philosophy, he even named his daughter with Russian name Sonya.”
V. L. Panfyorov.
In the time of war he published a collection of poems “Aspirations” (need to confirm English name), which consisted a verse “In memory of admiral Makarov”:
(following is my rough translation from Russian poetic translation of this verse)
Calm down, hurricane! Surf, stop rumbling
While throwing yourself frenzily onto the wild shores!
You, demons, screaming in the night
At least for a moment stop your screaming!
Friends and foes throw away your swords
Don’t make furious blows
Stand still and bow your heads
At the sound of his name: Makarov!
I fame him in hour of blind hatred
Through fearful roar of flood and fire.
In ocean depths, where waves are boiling,
Protector of Port Arthur now resides.
Oh, Northern sun! How gracefully
It came down into maelstrom.
Let things stop like in a desert
In silence glory render him!
You hear how thunderous wordless cry
Filled universe up to the edge?
What ringed in it? Thirst for vengeance?
At time of death? Or crazy anger,
Ready to level the world with it,
When waves closed down, boiling
Over the ship, the Fatherland’s defender?
Oh, no, great spirit and song of life!
Valorous enemy! You’ve met your end,
Fearlessly standing in the command post
With Makarov compared, they’ll honor hero
In other century. Immortal is you crown!
And I, Japan-born poet
In country of your enemies, on farther shore
I, by saddest news am shaken
Can’t stop the urge to sorrow.
You, spirits of war, bow down till the earth!
Friends and foes throw away your swords!
Ant the name of Makarov stay silent, oh battle!
This Russian knight should be renowned
Among the greatest leaders of all times,
But by merciless death he is defeated.
When suddenly were lit by lightning
Eastern Asian skies
Stat boiling waves in yellow sea,
When ship around Port Arthur
Surrounded waged unfair fight,
You, filled with pain for your Homeland
Came to help. Oh, how powerful you are
Last ray of light among black skies!
You sailed forth with iron resolution
To fight for Russia, valorous sailor!
And high above those roaring depths
Was mast with proud admiral’s flag.
But moment’s gone – and all beyond the waves
By victors celebrated banner
And strength, unmatched by any:
Where is their grave, who’d say?
Descended shadows at that horrid day
And Sun away took all its light
And sea itself proclaimed:
(Friends and foes throw away your swords
All as one kneel
Let one strife join the hearts.)
One mine was hiding and unseen.
An suddenly awful explosion
Sunk ship which carried master of the sea.
With calmly hands crossed on the chest,
With eyes gazing in depths,
Where circled angrily triumphant waves,
And gone forever famous admiral.
Oh, ocean of fate and angry storm,
His touching wrongful death!
Just for day you raged around Port Arthur,
Will always be remembered that black day.
Whenever they will ask you with reproach,
How dared you such a life to take,
Then – on the verge of the eternal life
What answer will you give?
All hopes and greatness in a moment
Were buried under your attempt!
So everyone is equal for you
And no one living is of any worth?
It’s end of things! With countless tears
History letters washed
But yet again one burning like a flame
Wave of my tears flows to this name.
And eternal unsealing wound
In chest where mighty spirit lived:
Whole world woes that light of his went out
In unseen depths of ocean.
But question is – is ever death his master!
What if instead of endless feast
From woes of ours, from our burning tears
Rise up the dawn of the eternal life?
Oh, my, if only this, at last, would happen!
My friend Makarov! Stepped you down in grave.
But in your name, in verses these of mine,
I’ll find the strength in the immortal truth,
To be like you, on the most frontline.
The moon shines dimly. Midnight hour,
Is calm, I look towards the gloom.
It seems to me that there, oh fearless warrior,
You’re stopping frantic push
Of waves, and bloody rage of theirs.
Your proud soul - promise of immortality.
You died, but couldn’t die.
You perished, yet you won with honor!
Calm down, you hurricane! Keep silent, surf!
Friends and foes – throw away your swords,
Don’t make furious blows!
Stand still with bowed heads!
Let my voice ring fire in the silence
To call for sorrow: died Makarov!
In ocean depths, where waves are boiling,
Protector of Port Arthur now resides.
Original poetic translation from Japanese into Russian by Vera Markova.
It has been a hundred years since Russo-Japanese war. Why are we trifling the past? Well, because one, who spits in the past, gets cannon shot from the future. And Russia still has territorial dispute with Japan, so it would be prudent to know your neighbor’s past, to understand what feelings can he have towards you.
Another ‘educated’ myth is alleged unpreparedness of Russia to the war in the Far East. Russia had regular army more than 1 million people against 150 thousand in Japanese. Trained Russian reserves were up to 4.5 million people, while Japan could offer only 900 thousand able to shoot a rifle. Russian navy (excluding Black Sea fleet, blocked by Turkish water-passes) by the count of modern ironclads was twice as potent as Japanese.
However, geography played against Russia on this. Russian fleets were separated by three oceans and almost half-globe trip. Newly constructed Trans-Siberian railway was single-lined and could only transfer no more than two infantry divisions with artillery regiment per month.
Russo-Japanese war was lost. Though it wasn’t Japanese arms what was victorious over Russia. It was Russian liberal ‘educated’ class, which instigated revolutionary efforts, readily funded and supported by world’s behind the curtain powers. Show person for that group was American banker Jacob Schiff.
Second most important agent of October revolution – Trotsky – hated to make public his second last name, one of from mother line. Surprising that Trotsky never hid the fact that he is Bronstein, but he didn’t like to mention that by mother’s line he is Zhivotovskiy. And this was because just before revolution Zhivotovskiy brothers were dealing in millions and played an important role in arms supply from beyond the border. Even more over, Abraham Zhivotovskiy had business connection with both J.P. Morgan and the head of Federal Reserve System of USA Paul Warburg. This connection explains why Jacob Schiff (whose figure is important in tragic events of Russo-Japanese war) turned out to be Trotsky’s financial sponsor. Jacob Schiff was precise in his political sympathies. These sympathies were unambiguously connected to Japan and Russian revolutionary movement. Jacob Schiff financed Japan through USA, and Japanese special services financed agents of Russian revolution, who were supposed to overturn Russian Empire from the inside.
Despite all that, geopolitical catastrophe in Russia didn’t happen. Russian Far Eastern fleet was gone, but Russian army not only wasn’t destroyed, but in the last months of war actually outnumbered Yamada’s forces in Manchuria. That became possible because of Trans-Siberian railway, construction of which was not only paid for dearly but also had emperor’s own soul put behind it. Knowing Japanese greed, it’s hard to imagine what kind of territorial claims would Japan put forth, if it became dominant naval power in this part of the Pacific, if not for this one tiny rail thread, which connected Russian coasts.
Let’s also remember that strategical plan of building naval fleet for the Far East wasn’t really a priority for Nikolai II’s great father – Aleksandr III The Peacekeeper, because he considered Russia to be more land state rather than sea. Yet Nikolai II signed this plan the very first year of his rule – 1895, when he was just 27. He needed just 1 more year to finish it. There are also other reasons for it. Banal lack of time and lack of funds. Initially it was supposed to be finished by the year of 1903. However, in this particular lack – of money – exists something that we call a role of personality in history. And that personality was Minister of Finances S.Y. Vitte. Several historian think that Vitte’s wife’s American relatives, tightly connected to certain American power brokers including of course Jacob Schiff, Labe-Kuhn (need to confirm English spelling) company and such.
Russian ‘educated’ class and ‘red’ professors liked to state that Russia provoked Japan to war, allowing private society of general Bezobrazov to get from then yet sovereign monarchical government in Korea a concession to develop woodcutting along the river Yalu along Korean-Manchurian border. What a foolishness! Wouldn’t it be better to just read second dogma of sinto, Nippon Empire’s official religion:
“Japan – is the center of the world, in which specifically because of lucky placement, development and power, factually concentrated highest power over politics and trade of the entire world”.
Young Russian monarch was a kind man, who loved his people. Maybe he was even too kind, if that can be considered a flaw. He was a wise politician and correctly realized geopolitical interests of his empire. He knew of inevitability of war and did everything possible to prepare for it. War was inevitable, because throughout the course of centuries nazism was ascended by our enemy not only in the rank of policy, but also the state’s religion. This religion persists in Japan to date.
Last edited on Thu Jun 13th, 2013 06:47 am by